Politics and Early Modernism
The period between the late 19th century to the early 20th century marks the birth of Modernism, an avant-garde movement of innovative art forms that breaks free from traditional constraints and accepted social conventions. The movement did not occur in a vacuum. Instead, it was influenced by and was in many ways a response to the politics of the day. Historical upheaval like World War I and the Russian Revolution spurred artists to find new ways to express and interpret what seemed like political chaos around them.
The late Victorian era sported controversial views about the ideas of individuality and autonomy between men and women and between the different social classes. Dawn's Left Hand by Richardson explores this theme of a new autonomous role for women in British society. British literature further examined how the rapid societal shifts coupled with the outbreak of World War I effected the class structures of England. Although the Industrial Revolution virtually eliminated individuality and the need for specialized labor in the working class, the middle class public was still infatuated with the ideas of individuality and the promises of capitalism. Thus, the general opinion of those with political power, mostly middle and upper class, was a merging of two very different ideas about society (Bivona 10). While this ideal of individuality among the classes in English society was beginning to be embraced at the political level, women of the upper-middle and middle classes still found their opportunities for independence to be extremely limited. In Virginia Woolf’s ''Mrs. Dalloway'', Clarissa Dalloway and her friend Sally Seton once scorned marriage and prized the unique bond they shared as young women. Ultimately, however, both must conform in varying degrees to the cultural mainstream of English society.
Britain's expansion of empire created tensions between the British and their subjects. In Ulysses, James Joyce expresses how Irish people feel oppressed by the British, likening it to the Jewish oppression that characterized Egypt and Greece under the Roman empire. In addition to exposing the Irish views of British Imperialism, Joyce also highlights the largely idealistic Irish nationalism of the time.
World War I was one of the most devastating events that influenced the literary movement. It left cities in ruins and millions of soldiers and civilians dead. Many children who survived were orphaned, and soldiers who were lucky enough to make it back were often shell-shocked. Virginia Woolf criticizes how society deals with shell-shocked soldiers such as Septimus Smith in Mrs. Dalloway.
The onset of violence also revealed a culture disillusioned by the promises of capitalism and a prospering democratic system from British imperialism. Artists of the 1920’s and 1930’s often blamed the war and the economic and social repercussions that closely followed it on the illusions capitalism created. Writers reacted to the war by adopting radical political beliefs. Art became a medium for changing society and reflected a wide range of contradictory political beliefs ranging from Karl Marx’s communism to Fascism (Raymond 3).
Karl Marx published his Communist Manifesto in 1848 based on his experiences with the working class in London. He argues for socio-economic changes to improve the conditions of the working class. In response to the plight of the working class, the Leftist party was formed in the 1890’s to represent the industrial workers. Literature influenced by this movement was anti-bourgeois and started to shift towards proletarian literature (Williams 113).
As the literary intellectuals became increasingly anti-bourgeois, they became fascinated with Marxism because it seemed like a solution to the widely decadent, modern society. As Europe faced economic decline, forms of communism or socialism became more and more popular in different European countries. In Germany, the communist or Nazi party quickly became the most popular because it was anti-capitalism. Mussolini came to power in Italy shortly after World War I and his Fascist ideas spread to the rest of Europe. Consequently, Fascism eventually played a major role in the Spanish revolution. The Russian revolution eradicated the Tsar monarchy and ushered in a new socialist party that promised to improve the conditions of the working class. Communism rapidly became a popular political solution to all the “evils of capitalism” in Europe. Artists exchanged ideas through Left-Wing journals and proletarian periodicals about radical changes to society. (Williams 117)
Whereas Marx inspired leftist political views in several artists and in many countries, English modernism reflects a predominate extreme-right, political view. Famous artists like Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot created art that was deeply influenced by radical conservatism and anti-Semitic views. Both artists were critical of the ideas of tolerance and the means of developing modern culture. They advocated traditions based on the historical Christianity of Latin Europe. Unlike Pound and Eliot, Joyce’s literature did not reflect racism and an anti-Semitic agenda. Leopold Bloom, Joyce’s protagonist in Ulysses, is a prime example of his lack of prejudice and contempt. Unlike Eliot and Pound, who are conservative, Joyce is liberal and tolerant, views reflected in his masterpiece Ulysses. Ulysses draws on all types of myths, styles, and stories from a variety of people. Joyce attempts to capture all types of impressions, senses, and emotions without trying to restrain or filter anything (Raymond 98).
Works Cited
Bivona, Daniel. British Imperial Literature, 1870-1940. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Williams, Raymond. Visions and Blueprints: Avant-garde culture and radical politics in early twentieth-century Europe. New York, New York: Manchester University Press, 1988.
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